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User experience, Product management

Self-Determination Theory

Human motivation is influenced by three innate psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Also called: SDT and Autonomy-Competence-Relatedness Theory

See also: Circles of Influence, Circles of Influence, Team Topology, Dual Process Theory, Nudging

Relevant metrics: User Engagement Rate, User Retention, Task Completion Rate, and User Satisfaction Score

In this article

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) suggests that motivation is not a single-dimensional concept but rather exists on a continuum from intrinsic to extrinsic. Central to SDT are three innate psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which when fulfilled, lead to optimal human functioning, motivation, and well-being.

Amotivation, Extrinsic Motivation, and Intrinsic Motivation. The self-determination continuum.

What is Self-Determination Theory (SDT)?

Self-Determination Theory emerged as a response to the limitations of behaviorist models of motivation, which predominantly focused on external rewards and punishments. SDT offered a more nuanced understanding, positing that humans are inherently motivated to grow and develop, provided their environment supports their basic psychological needs.

Key Components of SDT

SDT understands human motivation through three core psychological needs: Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness. These interdependent elements serve as the underpinning of our behavior, shaping how we interact with the world and influencing our mental well-being. Each of these core concepts not only has its unique importance but also interacts with the other two in complex ways to form a holistic understanding of human motivation.

The components of Self-Determination Theory: Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness.

  1. Autonomy. Autonomy refers to the need to feel in control of one’s own actions and decisions. It’s about having the freedom to choose and being the author of one’s own experiences. In a product design context, autonomy can be fostered by allowing users to personalize their experiences, offering them meaningful choices, and minimizing unnecessary restrictions.
  2. Competence. Competence involves the need to feel effective and capable within one’s environment. It is the sense of mastery and achievement when interacting with products or completing tasks. UX Designers can enhance competence by providing users with clear feedback, appropriately challenging tasks, and opportunities for skill development.
  3. Relatedness. Relatedness is the need to feel connected to others, to belong, and to have meaningful interactions. It’s about fostering a sense of community and social connection. In product design, this can be achieved by incorporating social features, enabling collaboration, or creating platforms where users can share and interact with others.

Applying Self-Determination theory in Product Design

Here’s how SDT’s core pillars, autonomy, competence, and relatedness, can be strategically integrated into product development.

1. Enhancing Autonomy

Autonomy refers to the feeling of being in control of one’s own actions and decisions. It is not just the ability to choose but the psychological experience of volition, the sense that one is the initiator of their actions rather than being pushed by external forces.

Autonomy is crucial because it serves as a powerful motivator for human behavior. When people perceive their actions as self-determined, they are more likely to be engaged, committed, and satisfied with what they’re doing. On the flip side, environments that curtail autonomy can lead to decreased motivation, well-being, and, ultimately, sub-optimal performance.

Simple design choices can foster autonomy. For instance, allowing users to customize the layout or color scheme of an application can make them feel more in control and, thus, more engaged with the software.

  • Customization Options. Allow users to personalize their interface or experience, such as adjusting settings, themes, or layouts. Customization fosters a sense of ownership and control, making the user feel more connected to the product.
  • Choice Architecture: Offer meaningful choices without overwhelming the user. Simplifying decision-making processes while ensuring that choices reflect the user’s goals can enhance the sense of autonomy.
  • Minimizing Unnecessary Constraints: Avoid restrictive processes that limit user freedom. For instance, overly rigid workflows or mandatory steps can undermine the user’s autonomy and reduce engagement.

To boost the feeling of autonomy in users, offer users options, let them initiate actions, and minimize controls or regulations that are perceived as restrictive. Your goal should be to create environments where people feel they are the authors of their own experiences, thereby unlocking the powerful motivational potential that autonomy brings.

Here’s how various persuasive patterns could be employed by product designers to enhance the sense of autonomy in users:

  • Limited Choice. While providing choices is essential for autonomy, too many options can be overwhelming. Offering a limited, yet meaningful, set of options aligns with our natural bias towards autonomy without causing decision fatigue.
  • Tailoring and Self-Monitoring. Empower users to tailor their experiences according to their preferences and to monitor the effects of their choices. This not only enhances autonomy but also keeps them engaged.
  • Recognition over Recall. Enable users to make more informed choices by surfacing relevant information where and when they need it, rather than requiring them to remember it all.
  • Unlock Features and Privileges. Rather than giving users access to all features right away, allow them to unlock these as they progress. This can provide a more tailored experience and also contribute to the sense of autonomy as they feel they’ve “earned” these features.

Consider an application like Spotify, which allows users to create and customize playlists, choose from different playback modes, and personalize their music discovery experience. This sense of autonomy contributes to higher user satisfaction and continued engagement with the platform.

Ask questions like: How can we empower users to make meaningful choices?

2. Fostering Competence

Competence refers to the innate human desire to be effective in interactions with one’s surroundings. It’s not only about having the skills needed but rather about the experience of exercising those skills and achieving desired outcomes. Feeling competent boosts our motivation, confidence, and well-being.

Competence holds a mirror to our abilities, validating us when we do well and challenging us to improve when we fall short. It can be thought of as the psychological fuel that propels us to take on challenges, hone our skills, and achieve mastery. Ignoring competence in product design could lead to user experiences that are frustrating or demotivating.

When we feel competent, we are more likely to engage deeply in tasks, explore new challenges, and persist in the face of difficulties. This, in turn, facilitates skill acquisition and promotes better performance.

To aid the feeling of feeling competent, User Experience designers can provide clear guidelines and immediate feedback, enabling users to adjust their behavior and strategies. Positive feedback reinforces the sense of competence, while constructive criticism serves as an avenue for growth, ensuring that the person remains engaged and motivated to improve.

To support the need for competence, product designs should help users feel capable and successful when using the product.

  • Provide clear and immediate feedback. Providing instant feedback on user actions helps them understand the consequences of their actions and adjust accordingly. This reinforcement is crucial for learning and mastery.
  • Use progress indicators. Use progress bars, achievement systems, or milestones to visually represent user progress. This can motivate users to continue engaging with the product to complete tasks or reach goals.
  • Appropriate Challenge Levels. Design tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult. Striking the right balance can keep users engaged without causing frustration or boredom.

Weaving persuasive design patterns into the fabric of a product can greatly enhance the user’s sense of competence:

  • Appropriate Challenges. Offering varying degrees of challenge can cater to a broad range of skill levels. Users should be able to start at a level that matches their current ability, offering a smooth learning curve that becomes challenging as they grow more competent. We will explore this more in the section on Flow Theory.
  • Tailoring. Enable some level of personalization or user-defined goals, which allows the user to tailor the experience according to their skills and interests, thereby enhancing their sense of competence.
  • Tunneling. Direct the user through a set series of actions or ‘tunnels’ that help them accomplish a complex task bit by bit, thereby enhancing their sense of competence over time.
  • Achievements. Recognize and celebrate user achievements, no matter how small. These could be badges, sound effects, or visual cues that serve to validate the user’s competence.
  • Goal-Gradient Effect. Utilizing progress bars that fill up as the user accomplishes tasks can be a potent way to increase their sense of competence. People are motivated to complete sets of tasks or acquire sets of objects once they are off to a great start.
  • Storytelling. Use storytelling elements to make the user the hero of their journey, increasing their sense of competence
  • Simulation. Give users a safe space to practice skills, thus enhancing their real-world competence.

Duolingo, a language learning app, effectively uses progress tracking, instant feedback, and level-based challenges to help users build their competence in learning new languages, thereby increasing their motivation to keep learning.

Ask questions like: How can we make the user feel more competent?

3. Promoting Relatedness

Relatedness relates to our desire to feel connected with others, to care and be cared for, and to have a sense of belonging.

Relatedness in product design is about fostering a sense of connection and belonging among users. This can be supported by:

  • Social features. Incorporate features that allow users to interact, share, and collaborate. Social validation, like comments, likes, or sharing capabilities, can enhance the sense of community and belonging.
  • Community building. Develop platforms where users can engage with each other around shared interests or goals. This can be forums, user groups, or collaborative projects within the product.
  • Storytelling and shared journeys. Use narratives that users can relate to, creating a shared experience or journey that ties them to the broader user community.

As humans, we are inherently social creatures. Our actions, beliefs, and motivations are deeply affected by our relationships and our sense of belonging within a community. Products that effectively leverage social cues and interactions can drive engagement and foster a powerful sense of community, thereby fulfilling the psychological need for relatedness and motivating users to return.

To infuse a sense of relatedness within your design, several persuasive patterns can be applied:

  • Social Proof and Authority Bias. Use testimonials, reviews, or expert opinions to provide evidence that a community of like-minded people endorse the product. This can drive user engagement by showing that the platform is socially approved.
  • Shaping and Storytelling. Create narratives or user journeys that emphasize community values, shared goals, or common interests. This provides context and meaning, encouraging users to feel part of something larger than themselves.
  • Rewards and Privileges. Offer social rewards like badges or special statuses that users can show off to the community. This provides a social incentive to engage with the product.
  • Periodic Events and Fresh Start Effect. Seasonal or periodic community events can generate a renewed sense of community and belonging, leveraging the “Fresh Start Effect” to re-engage users.
  • Noble Edge Effect. Emphasize the ethical or altruistic aspects of community participation. The sense that one is contributing to a noble cause can amplify feelings of relatedness.
  • Delay Discounting and Temptation Bundling. Offer immediate social benefits or rewards as part of longer-term goals to keep users engaged and feeling connected even as they work towards more significant objectives.

LinkedIn fosters relatedness by allowing users to connect with peers, share professional achievements, and participate in groups. This not only enhances the user’s sense of belonging but also encourages regular interaction with the platform.

Ask questions like: What features can foster a sense of community?

Balancing Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation

In the context of Self-Determination Theory (SDT), motivation exists on a continuum from amotivation to extrensic to intrinsic. Especially extrensic and intrinsic motivation has an interplay that needs to be balanced. Both types of motivation play crucial roles in influencing user behavior. Understanding how to balance these motivations in product design can lead to more effective and sustainable user engagement.

Intrinsic motivation: the internal drive

Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separable consequence. When users are intrinsically motivated, they interact with a product because they find it enjoyable, fulfilling, or aligned with their personal goals and values.

Designing for Mastery and Curiosity can help forster intrinsic motivation by offering challenges for users to improve their skills or explore new content. By offering opportunities for mastery, such as progressively difficult tasks or new areas to explore, users are likely to stay engaged because the activity itself is rewarding.

Many educational platforms, like Khan Academy, focus on mastery learning, allowing users to advance at their own pace. The satisfaction derived from learning something new or overcoming a challenge can sustain long-term engagement without the need for external rewards.

Extrinsic motivation: leveraging external rewards

Extrinsic motivation involves performing an activity to achieve an outcome that is separate from the activity itself, such as earning rewards, avoiding penalties, or gaining recognition.

  • Incorporate rewards and incentives. Extrinsic motivators like badges, points, discounts, or social recognition can effectively drive short-term engagement. However, it’s crucial to design these incentives in a way that supports intrinsic motivation rather than undermining it.
  • Avoid over-reliance on external rewards: While extrinsic rewards can drive initial engagement, relying too heavily on them may cause users to lose interest once the rewards are no longer available. It’s important to use these rewards as a means to introduce users to the product and then gradually shift the focus to intrinsic motivators.

Fitness apps like Fitbit use a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation by rewarding users with badges for achieving specific goals while also encouraging long-term engagement through social features and personal health improvement.

Striking the right balance

Initially, extrinsic rewards can help in onboarding and engaging users. As users become more familiar with the product, the focus should shift towards enhancing intrinsic motivation, ensuring that users find personal satisfaction in continued use.

Extrinsic rewards should be designed to support the user’s sense of autonomy and competence (intrinsic motivators). For example, allowing users to choose which rewards they work towards or providing rewards that acknowledge skill development can enhance both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Language learning apps like Duolingo balance intrinsic and extrinsic motivation by offering rewards like streaks and gems (extrinsic) while also providing a sense of achievement through skill progression and mastery (intrinsic).

What is Amotivation?

In an amotivated state, users show little to no interest in the activity at hand, regardless of any potential rewards or intrinsic values. Unlike extrinsically or intrinsically motivated users, amotivated individuals don’t engage in behavior for a particular outcome; they are neither drawn by a reward nor driven by an internal need for mastery or satisfaction.

Naturally, an amotivated user is unlikely to interact meaningfully with your product, leading to poor engagement metrics and over time, amotivated users are more likely to abandon the product entirely, leading to high churn rates.

The following is a list of anti-patterns that can result in leaving users amotivated:

  • Overcomplication. Design interfaces that are difficult to navigate or understand can overwhelm the user, leading to amotivation. Simple, intuitive designs are key.
  • Lack of clear goals. Users need to understand what they’re working towards. A lack of clear objectives within your product can contribute to feelings of aimlessness.
  • Misalignment with user goals. If the app’s primary features or content don’t align with what the user is seeking, they may quickly become amotivated to use it further.
  • Invisible progression. Lack of indicators for milestones or achievements can make it seem like the user isn’t making any progress, which can be demotivating.
  • Excessive use of extrinsic rewards. While extrinsic rewards can boost engagement in the short term, over-reliance on them can actually sap intrinsic motivation, leaving a void once the rewards cease.
  • Feature overload. Overloading your interface with features can overwhelm users, making it difficult to locate essential functionalities and thus contributing to amotivation.
  • Inconsistent or absent feedback. Users need to know how they’re doing. Neglecting to provide feedback, or offering inconsistent feedback, can lead to confusion and ultimately, amotivation.
  • A poor onboarding experience. An initial experience that is confusing, lacking in direction, or too cumbersome can lead to early abandonment and amotivation.
  • Confusing terminology or jargon. Using complex language or industry jargon that is not easily understood by the general user base can lead to confusion and disengagement.
  • Lack of transparency. Users may become amotivated if they feel that their data is being misused or if it’s unclear how they are supposed to achieve tasks within the app.

The continuum of motivation within SDT

The continuum of motivation is a central concept in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which provides a framework for understanding the different types of motivation that drive human behavior. As illustrated in the attached graphic, this continuum ranges from amotivation, where there is a lack of intention to act, through various forms of extrinsic motivation, and ultimately to intrinsic motivation, where actions are performed out of genuine interest and personal satisfaction.

Amotivation, Extrinsic Motivation, and Intrinsic Motivation. The self-determination continuum.

At the far left of the continuum lies amotivation, a state in which an individual lacks the intention to act altogether. In this state, there is no sense of purpose or desire to engage in a behavior, often because the individual does not value the activity, does not feel competent to perform it, or does not believe it will lead to a desired outcome. Amotivation can result from feelings of helplessness or disconnection from the activity or its outcomes, leading to a complete absence of motivation to engage in the behavior.

Moving along the continuum, we encounter extrinsic motivation, which refers to behavior driven by external rewards or pressures rather than by internal satisfaction. Extrinsic motivation is not monolithic; it varies in its degree of self-determination, or how much the individual identifies with the value of the behavior. This variation is captured by the different forms of regulation within extrinsic motivation, each reflecting a different perceived source of control:

  1. External regulation is the most controlled form of extrinsic motivation. Here, behavior is driven by external rewards or punishments. The perceived source of control is entirely external, and actions are taken to avoid negative consequences or to gain specific rewards.

  2. At the Introjected regulation stage, external pressures are internalized to some extent, but not fully embraced. Individuals engage in behavior to avoid guilt, anxiety, or to maintain self-esteem, but the motivation is still somewhat external, as it is based on internalized expectations rather than personal endorsement.

  3. In Identified regulation the individual begins to identify with the value of the behavior, seeing it as important and personally meaningful. The perceived source of control shifts from somewhat external to somewhat internal, as the individual is motivated by the personal significance of the activity, even if it is not inherently enjoyable.

  4. Integrated Regulation is the most self-determined form of extrinsic motivation, where the individual fully assimilates the behavior with their own values and beliefs. The behavior is congruent with the person’s self-identity, and the perceived source of control is internal. Although the behavior is still extrinsically motivated (as it is performed for outcomes separable from the activity itself), it is fully endorsed by the self.

At the far right of the continuum is intrinsic motivation, where behavior is driven by inherent enjoyment and satisfaction. Actions are performed because they are naturally rewarding, without the need for external incentives or pressures. The perceived source of control is entirely internal, as the motivation comes from the pure pleasure and interest in the activity itself. Intrinsic motivation is associated with high levels of engagement, creativity, and persistence, as the activity is aligned with the individual’s core interests and passions.

Regulation behavior and perceived source of control

Regulation behavior refers to the processes by which individuals control their actions in alignment with their motivations. As one moves from amotivation to intrinsic motivation along the continuum, the form of regulation shifts from being externally imposed to being internally controlled.

  • External regulation. Behavior is regulated by external factors such as rewards or punishments. The perceived source of control is entirely external, meaning the individual acts in response to outside forces rather than personal choice.

  • Introjected regulation. Here, regulation is somewhat internal but still influenced by external pressures. The individual acts to avoid negative emotions or to uphold self-esteem, but the behavior is not fully aligned with personal values.

  • Identified regulation. Behavior is regulated by personal importance and conscious valuing of the activity. The individual perceives a somewhat internal source of control, as the actions are based on recognized benefits that align with personal goals.

  • Integrated regulation. Regulation is fully internalized, and behavior is congruent with the individual’s self-concept. The perceived source of control is internal, as the individual acts out of a deep alignment between their values and the behavior.

  • Intrinsic motivation. Behavior is naturally regulated by the enjoyment and satisfaction derived from the activity itself. The perceived source of control is entirely internal, reflecting complete autonomy in the motivation to act.

Understanding the continuum from amotivation to intrinsic motivation, along with the associated forms of regulation, is crucial for fostering environments that support self-determination and autonomy. By recognizing where an individual lies on this continuum, it becomes possible to tailor interventions and supports that can help them move toward more self-determined and intrinsically motivated behavior, ultimately leading to greater well-being and engagement.

Real world examples of Self-Determination Theory applied

Understanding the theoretical aspects of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is valuable, but seeing how it is applied in real-world products can provide practical insights for product designers. Here are examples of how popular products integrate the principles of SDT—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—into their design.

Slack supports autonomy

Slack is a popular communication tool used by teams around the world. It effectively incorporates autonomy into its design in several ways.

Slack allows users to create custom channels, set notification preferences, and integrate various third-party apps. This customization empowers users to tailor their experience based on personal and team preferences, fostering a sense of control and ownership over their workspace.

Users can choose how they interact within the platform, whether through direct messages, channels, or threads. This flexibility supports autonomy by allowing users to communicate in the way that suits them best.

By providing users with the ability to customize their experience and choose how they interact, Slack enhances user autonomy, which is crucial for maintaining engagement and satisfaction.

Duolingo supports competence

The language learning app, Duolingo structures its content into bite-sized lessons with increasing difficulty levels, allowing users to progress at their own pace. This progression system provides users with a clear sense of achievement as they master new skills.

The app provides instant feedback on answers, correcting mistakes and reinforcing correct responses. This immediate feedback helps users understand their progress and areas for improvement, fostering a sense of competence.

By offering a clear pathway to mastery and providing instant feedback, Duolingo ensures that users feel competent and motivated to continue their language learning journey.

LinkedIn plays on relatedness

LinkedIn excels in creating a sense of relatedness among its users.

Its core functionality revolves around connecting professionals. By facilitating connections, endorsements, and recommendations, LinkedIn helps users build and maintain professional relationships.

Users can join groups based on their professional interests, fostering a sense of belonging and shared purpose. These communities provide a platform for discussions, advice, and support, enhancing the user’s sense of relatedness.

LinkedIn taps into the human need for relatedness by helping users establish meaningful professional connections, thereby increasing the likelihood of sustained engagement with the platform.

FitBit combines all three

Fitbit, a leader in fitness tracking, integrates all three SDT principles—autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Users can set their fitness goals, customize their activity tracking, and choose from a variety of exercises. This autonomy allows users to tailor their experience based on personal fitness preferences.

Their app uses progress tracking, badges, and challenges to provide users with a sense of achievement. The app’s ability to track improvements over time helps users feel competent and motivated to continue their fitness journey.

The social features of Fitbit, such as challenges with friends, sharing achievements, and joining communities, foster a sense of relatedness. These features help users feel connected to others who share similar fitness goals.

By integrating autonomy, competence, and relatedness, Fitbit creates a holistic user experience that keeps users engaged and motivated in their fitness endeavors.

Frequently asked questions about Self-Determination Theory

What is the meta theory of self-determination?

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is rooted in organismic meta-theory, which posits that human beings are inherently active, growth-oriented organisms who are naturally inclined to develop through the fulfillment of their psychological needs. This meta-theory suggests that when environmental conditions support autonomy, competence, and relatedness, individuals are more likely to thrive and engage in self-motivated behavior. Conversely, when these needs are thwarted, motivation and well-being can be undermined.

What is the principle of self-determination?

The principle of self-determination emphasizes the importance of individuals’ ability to make choices and control their own lives. It suggests that people are most motivated and fulfilled when they experience a sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in their activities. This principle underpins the idea that individuals thrive when they are self-regulated rather than controlled by external forces.

What paradigm is self-determination theory?

Self-Determination Theory operates within the humanistic and cognitive-behavioral paradigms. It aligns with humanistic psychology’s focus on the growth potential of individuals and their inherent drive toward self-actualization. SDT also incorporates elements of cognitive-behavioral approaches by emphasizing how external environments and internal psychological processes interact to influence behavior and motivation.

What is an example of self-determination?

An example of self-determination can be seen in educational settings where students are given the freedom to choose their projects or learning paths. When a student selects a topic they are passionate about and is supported in pursuing this interest, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated, work harder, and achieve better outcomes compared to when they are simply following imposed guidelines.

What are the Self-Determination Theory strategies?

Strategies based on Self-Determination Theory include:

  • Supporting Autonomy. Allowing individuals to make choices and self-direct their activities.
  • Enhancing Competence. Providing tasks that are optimally challenging and offering feedback that supports skill development.
  • Fostering Relatedness. Encouraging social connections and collaboration to help individuals feel part of a community.

These strategies are applied in various contexts, including education, work, and health, to promote intrinsic motivation and well-being.

What are the strengths of Self-Determination Theory?

The strengths of Self-Determination Theory include its comprehensive framework that explains both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, its applicability across various domains (education, work, healthcare), and its strong empirical support. SDT’s focus on autonomy, competence, and relatedness provides a clear, actionable approach to improving motivation and well-being in diverse settings.

What are the weaknesses of Self-Determination Theory?

One of the weaknesses of SDT is that it may oversimplify the complexity of human motivation by focusing primarily on three basic psychological needs. Critics also argue that the theory does not adequately address cultural differences in the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as these needs may manifest differently in various cultural contexts.

What are the goals of Self-Determination Theory?

The primary goals of Self-Determination Theory are to understand and promote environments that support intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being. SDT aims to identify the conditions under which individuals can thrive by fulfilling their needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, thereby enhancing their motivation, performance, and overall life satisfaction.

Relevant questions to ask
  • What are the core components of Self-Determination Theory?
    Hint The core components of SDT are autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which are essential for fostering intrinsic motivation and overall well-being.
  • How can SDT be applied in product design?
    Hint SDT can be applied in product design by creating experiences that enhance users' sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, leading to higher engagement and satisfaction.
  • What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in SDT?
    Hint Intrinsic motivation arises from internal satisfaction and interest in the activity itself, while extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards or pressures.
  • What features can foster a sense of community?
  • How can we make the user feel more competent?
  • How can we empower users to make meaningful choices?

You might also be interested in reading up on:

Relevant books on the topic of Self-Determination Theory
  • Self-Determination Theory: An Overview by Ryan Deci (2000)
Sources
  • Self-Determination Theory: Autonomy, Relatedness, Competence by Nielsen Norman Group
  • Self-Determination Theory by Selfdeterminatintheory.org
  • Self-determination Theory by Wikipedia
  • The 'What' and 'Why' of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior by Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M.
  • Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions by Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L.
  • Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being by Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L.
  • Autonomy and Relatedness as Fundamental to Motivation and Engagement: Their Interdependence and Conceptual Challenges by Roth, G., Assor, A., Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L.
  • Self-Determination Theory in Work Organizations: The State of a Science by Deci, E. L., Olafsen, A. H., & Ryan, R. M.

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